Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – 11/26/2017
Centralization of Power and Cultural Heritage: Islamic Republic of Iran
Tribute to my Auguste Professor, Mr. Pierre Rondot
TRIBUTE to Mr. PIERRE RONDOT Institute of Political Studies – Sciences Po Grenoble, University Domain, Saint-Martin-d’Hères Said El Mansour Cherkaoui, Ph.D. During my studies at Sciences Po Grenoble, I had the immense and unique pleasure to have as Professor the Affable and much Lamented Professor Pierre Rondot whom I accompanied from the University Domain to the train station for his return trip to… Continue reading →
Introduction
A great historical fact emerged from the appearance of Islam and which grew during the succession disputes after Abu Bakr. The corresponding period is the high point in the politicization of Islam and within it are the roots for the blossoming of divergences and the first seeds of discord as well as the structural and institutional reasons for the break-up of the notion of the Ouma Islamiya as an entity governed by respect for the principles and canons of Islam. In this interruption of politics in the sphere of divine belief was distilled both the politicization of Islam, the principle of the Caliphate and the institutionalization of the Ouma Islamiya in a legal and institutional form. This transposition of the Ouma towards a community of interests no longer religious but of heritage and the guidance of this Ouma on the criterion of heredity was henceforth based and directly on the proclamation of a legitimate descent from the Prophet. In other words, this is effectively where heresy first appears as a political label to weed out competitors in the race for power.
Presentation of a Western Review:
“Mahomet invites his Arab compatriots to renounce the customary deities in order to worship only the one God ( Allah in Arabic) and submit to the pillars of the new faith. Effective leader of men, he submits to his authority the Arabian peninsula in about ten years. After his death, in 632, his successors or replacements ( caliphs in Arabic) lead their troops to conquer the Middle East and the southern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. All the words of God from the mouth of Muhammad are transcribed in a collection that is now authoritative among believers of the new religion: the Koran , from an Arabic word that means “Recite” . Believers themselves call themselves Muslims, from an Arabic word that means “submitted” (to God). The word Islam , which designates their religion, has the same origin. » End of quote.
Communal Islam and the Political Division of Arab Elites
The Prophet Muhammad (Sala Allah Alih wa Salam), joined Allah in 632 without designating any successor or representative since Islam manifested itself as a divine expression and not a human ideology seeking monopoly and transfer of power. Islam therefore presented itself as a rectitude against the Jahiliya and as a religion complementing the previous ones which had effectively been diverted from their divine messages and their priority objectives by taking control of political power. Without distinction of classes, nor difference or segregation between humans, except by way of belief in Allah and therefore could not be interpreted as an abstraction of human power over believers in Islam. Any political emanation should be a manifestation of a consensus of the majority of the Ouma.
The guarantor of these predispositions remains subject to designation criteria and the devolution of a role of Imam within the Ouma. This position of conciliator and teacher of the Islamic principles of equity can therefore only be a responsibility which is legitimized by its Islamic actions of essence and disciplinary countenance having as its finality the well-being of the Ouma. The Ouma remains in this the initiator and the ultimate reason for the existence of an Imam whose mandate is decided by his action and his reputation with the Ouama. The Baraka also plays here a role of confirmation of the gifts of this guide since it represents a “Sacred fragrance of the Saint or the Sharif which allows them to transform beings and things and to perform wonders” 1
In this sense, heritage is henceforth stripped of its social cover of elitism and of its claiming impetus for appropriation in the present through a lineage recognized by the historical past of a community. In these wheels of dispute over the foundations of the authenticity of affiliations and kinship links, the claim to priority in the acquisition of a constructive vitality that can make power a part not only of the heritage blessed by the Almighty but also through the acceptance of the Ouma of its own guides. This duality of recognition is one of the ambivalent tendencies claimed by those who occupy power in Muslim countries.
Genesis of Power in the Muslim World
Initial Version Published in EL JADIDA MAZAGAN ⵎⴰⵣⴰⵖⴰⵏ MAZAGÃO DOUKKALA MOROCCO and in El Jadida Scoop Version Française: Islam and Politics in Muslim World This analysis is a presentation of ongoing research and constitutes only the first part of a subject whose vicissitudes and the consequences are still today a daily news and… Continue Reading →
To establish their spiritual authority and to consolidate their political foundations, the Arab Elites and their emulators thereafter in the Muslim world, erected as cannons of the civic and political relationship social bases and spiritual frameworks and organizations whose only purpose was indeed to justify their claim to be the descendants of the restricted circles of the Prophet and his close relations and also through the Koranic references of the suras and even of certain hadiths.
“Caliphs (Arabic: meaning “successor” or “representative”) designate the successors of [Mohammed]. The bearer of the title has the role of keeping the unity of Islam and every Muslim owes him obedience, within the framework of the sharia: he is the leader of the ummah, the community of Muslims.
A dispute between Sunnis and Shiites will lead the caliphate to split into two very distinct visions: the former consider that the caliph must be elected for his moral and Islamic qualities, despite his origins. The latter consider that only a filial successor of [Mohammed] can claim this title. A single caliph would therefore have great difficulty in directing the whole of the current Muslim community.
The Prophet [Mohammed SAW] died without designating a successor and without leaving a system for choosing one, but several acts led the unanimity of Muslims of the time to conclude that he preferred Abu Bakr (during his lifetime even when was ill, he asked him, and no one else, to lead the prayer). Therefore, the Caliphate was established. The role of the caliph is to keep the unity of Islam and every Muslim owes him obedience: he is the leader of the ummah, the community of Muslims. The title khalifat rasul Allah , meaning “successor of the messenger of God” became the common title.
The Shiites recognize only the fourth caliph, being Ali, father of all the imams. The Shiites believe that the next caliph, Yazīd was guilty of the death of Hussein, and therefore any succession of caliphs would have lost its legitimacy. Certain caliphs were often called amīr al-mu’minīn “commander of the believers”. The title was shortened and Frenchified to “emir”.
None of the early caliphs said they had received divine revelations, as was the case for [Mohammed – SAW], anxious to stay on the right path and fearing Allah. [Mohammed–SAW] being the last prophet, none of the caliphs said to be a nabī , “prophet” or a rasul “divine messenger”. The revelations made through [Mohammed – SAW] were quickly codified and written down in the Quran, which was accepted as the supreme authority, thus limiting what the Caliph could direct.
However, the early caliphs were the spiritual and temporal leaders of Islam, and insisted that obedience to the caliph in all things was the mark of a good Muslim. However, the role has become strictly temporal with the rise of the ulemas, and the estrangement of certain caliphs from the pure practice of religion. After the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Omar, Ottoman and Ali Ibnou Abi Talib), the title was claimed controversially by the Umayyads, Abbasids and Ottomans, as well as other lineages in Spain, South Africa North and Egypt. Most Muslim rulers simply bore the title of sultan or emir, and swore allegiance to a caliph who often had little authority. The title no longer exists since the Republic of Turkey abolished the Ottoman Caliphate in 1924.
While the caliphate has been a point of contention among Muslim leaders, it has been little discussed since 1924. practices to unite more than fifty nation-states into a single institution have limited efforts to revive it.”
Source http://c-est-quoi.com/fr/definition/islamic
Heresy and the Premature Notion of the Caliphate
The title of the head of the Muslim community (Ouma Islamiya) the caliph was therefore defined by Muslim jurisprudence which is not recognized and has no basis of justification or claim of legitimacy since only Allah is the direct voter with his universal suffrage which comes from the Koran and its principles. In these expressions of Allah are the profile and the program as well as the limits of the civic and civil responsibility of Imam. Politics has no basis of definition in this religious, social and spiritual relationship.
In this context and during the Khoulaafa Rashidin, Abu Bakr, Omar, Othman and Ali and from the end of the Caliphate of Abu Bakr who had become old and who was the companion and the right arm of the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) it is indeed from this period of the dissensions appear and had resulted in politically motivated attacks which led to the assassination of Omar and Ali who is the German Cousin of the Prophet and the Husband of the Only Living Daughter of the Prophet.
The arrival of the Arabs in Egypt during Omar was not undertaken to convert the local population, it was an attempt to stop the growing influence of the Byzantines – Romans.
In the rest of North Africa, it is the same case, it was first necessary to get rid of the navy and the fleet of the Byzantines dominating the coasts of the Eastern Mediterranean in order to launch the Arab Army in North Africa.
The conversion to Islam did not date from this time since the Arabs after the defeat of the Persian armies, the expansion in Syria and Armenia, they turned to North Africa.
The difficulties encountered in Egypt forced Omar to ask Amre to give in and leave Cyrenaica and Tripoli.
Don’t forget also that khawarej were from Egypt and it was them who murdered in his own house while he was taken hostage Othman
Then the conversion existed or during all this period where it was by no means organized considering that the regional dissidents, the resistance of the Byzantines, the Berbers, the Punics and other ethnic groups and the changes of the Leaders since Abou Bakr until Ali and his troubles with Mouawiya.
Indeed, it was only in 656 that the closest relative of the Prophet, in this case Ali, was put in the wake of the Caliphate and inheriting a territory which extends to the borders of Egypt. Already almost a quarter of a century has passed and which was punctuated by alliances, rivalries and physical eliminations and all to monopolize power and become the heir of the Prophet on the political and institutional level. From now on, the political history of Islamization coincides with the history of Islamic thought to form new currents which will lead to the birth of movements of thought justifying the seizure of political power on various bases highlighting the acquired legitimacy. by spiritual allegiance, by lineage of nobility,
Indeed in these quarrels of tribes and claim of the descent of the Prophet and the claim of the partiality of the quality of the action of Imam below any consideration of inheritance by blood, that the politicization and the institutionalization of Islam as part of the Shaaria has become in the hands of the powerful Koraichi Tribes an ideology to conquer and fulfill their designs for domination over the Nation of Islam by presenting himself as the Legitimate Caliph with the blessing of the Koran. This evolution gave birth to the Umayyads but before that, it turned out that several factions of Official Islam had already manifested themselves such as the Kawarijes, the Shiites and other defenders of the notion of Mahdi Al Mountadar. Later Ibn Toumert took this wake which allowed his direct disciple to found a dynasty in Morocco. In the same perspective, it should not be forgotten that thanks to these movements, the Amazigh, what was called Ajam at the time, have effectively embraced Islam in its Khawarigite and Shiite dimensions and not Sunnis; since at that time, such a distinction did not yet exist.
In this perspective, the Madhab Sunni Al Maliki as is the case of other Madahibes that can be considered as a direct consequence of these internal quarrels which sought to define a Political Islamization since Islam as a religion no longer framed just the contours of Medina and Mecca or even the surroundings of Damascus but from now on has shown its capacity to expand beyond its territorial, cultural and political borders. In this universal quest, the populations concerned by this Islamization demanded a legitimacy of their own cultural and regional characteristics and in no way accepted the notion of the Caliphate through the justification of the proximity of the Prophet either in terms of loyalty, support , tribal affiliation or even in terms of direct family relationship.
This illustrated manuscript by Yahya Ibn Vaseti in the Maqâma of al-Hariri (Baghdad, 1237) shows a library and students. Wikimedia Commons
Another suitor, Mouawiya, a distant cousin of the Prophet claims the succession by accusing Ali of having plotted the assassination of the third Rashid Caliphate, Othman ibn Afane, the one who allowed the publication of the first Koran. In this imbroglio remains and is confined all the tribal, family, religious and even cultural confrontations taking as justification Islam in its oral meaning starting from the prophet and not as a message coming from Allah.
The claim of descent and inheritance through the notion of Chorafa of Mecca by blood thus became the legitimate way to acquire and exercise the power of legislation and application of the principles of Islam. This tendency was reinforced by the belief and respect that non-Arab peoples identify as a blessing in any claimant to power who claims to be an Arab descendant of the Prophet. This duality of the evolution and the territorial expansion of Islam favored the emergence and the reinforcement of political cleavages claiming an institutional recognition which comes up against the refusal of those who claim to have Arab and Chourfa (Cherifian) descent.
It is the Sunni dynasty of the Umayyads – which succeeds one another hereditarily – which prevails and settles in Damascus, Syria. It submits – with difficulty – the Berber Maghreb, Spain (Al-Andalous), but fails before the Christian Franks of Charles Martel (Poitiers, 732) and the Byzantines (Constantinople, 718).
Anti-Arab hostility developing, a new dynasty – the Abbasids supported by Persians – usurped the caliphate and founded a new capital in Baghdad, on the banks of the Tigris. The empire then extends from the Atlantic to the Indus. A few hundred thousand fighters, animated by the spirit of jihad, subjugated one-sixth of humanity. The conquerors relied on a missionary faith, a common language, the “civil servants” of the Persian and Byzantine empires and their tolerance of subject peoples (Jews and Christians obtained the status of dhimmis, which allowed them to keep their religion and customs in return for a tribute). However, the vastness of the empire,
In 881 , ‘Ubayd Allah al-Mahdî became the new imam of the Ismailis . For fear of the anti-Shiite repression of the Abbasids, he fled from Syria and took refuge in Sijilmassa in southern Morocco . With an army organized by Abu Abd Allah, he conquered all of Ifriqiya ending 112 years of Aghlabid
rule .
On January 15, 910 , ‘Ubayd Allah al-Mahdî took the title of Caliph and “Commander of the Faithful” despite the existence of the Abbasid Caliph . It was then the first time that two caliphs reigned at the same time.
The Fatimid caliphate remains particular since it is the only one which claims Shiism and governed from the capital Cairo which founded by them to the borders of present-day Morocco where they first developed to dominate all of Saharan North Africa. and that between 910 and 1171.
In 969 , Al-Muizz li-Dîn Allah a Maghrebi Berber Shiite conquered Egypt as the Fatimids in memory of Fatima the daughter of the prophet Mohamed {SAW} and wife of Ali. An affiliation that imposes a lineage of Chorfa and a spiritual and institutional legitimacy to be a Caliph. He took Al-Fustat on July 7. Near this old capital, he founded a new capital which he named al-Qâhira ( Cairo ), which means “the Victorious”. He continued to extend his conquests as far as Syria and managed to establish himself in Malta , Sicily and temporarily set foot in southern Italy.
The second peculiarity of the Caliphate of the Fatimids is that it coexisted with a second caliphate in Baghdad and also in 1009, Al-Hâkim ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem . This will be the pretext for the beginning of the crusades
The call to the crusade, in Clermont, of Pope Urban II (1095)
“As most of you already know, a people from Persia, the Turks, advanced to the Mediterranean Sea, to the detriment of the lands of the Christians. (…) Many fell under their blows: many were reduced to slavery. These Turks are destroying the churches; they destroy the kingdom of God. (…) Also, I urge you and I beg you, you the heralds of Christ, to persuade everyone, to which class of society they belong, knights or peons, rich or poor, by your frequent preaching, to come to the aid of the Christians in time and push this evil people far from our territories. (…) To all who set out and die on the way, whether on land or at sea, or who lose their lives fighting against the heathen, remission of their sins will be granted.
»
In 1171 , Al-Adid was the 14th and last Fatimid caliph. Saladin annexes the territory of the Fatimids and reigns supreme over Egypt at the head of the Ayyubid dynasty . he pledges allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph Al – Mushadhi . There is only one caliph left: that of Baghdad . Source: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_caliphs
The Caliphs of the Prophet: The 4 Caliphs
Upon the death of the Prophet Muhammad in AD 632, the Caliph (successor) took command of the Muslims.
Caliphs In chronological order: These Rashidun were either elected by a commission or chosen by the predecessor, after the death of Muhammad.
1-Abou Bakr or Abu Bakr born in 573, reign: (632-634)
Shortly after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, at a gathering of Ansars and Muhadjir, Abu Bakr was appointed as the successor to guide the ummah, making him the first caliph in history. Some Arab tribes revolted following this decision and refused to pay Zakat while continuing to pray. Abu Bakr insisted on the fact that they had to discharge these two obligations otherwise, they did not fulfill their religious duties. This was the start of the Wars of Apostasy (Arabic: حروب الردة [houroub al-ridda]).
He must also face Musaylima, a man claiming to be a prophet against whom he sent an army commanded by Khalid ibn al-Walid. In this battle, 1200 Muslims including 39 grand companions and 70 master-reciters were killed. When the Muslims finally regained the advantage and Musaylima was killed, Khalid received a letter of rebuke from Abu Bakr because after the victory he negotiated the spoils with the rest of Musaylima’s army.
After these problems were cleared up and peace returned, Abu Bakr focused on the Persian and Byzantine empires. Some accounts show that during this period, Abu Bakr also contributed to preserving the Qur’an in written form and that he was the first to order the compilation of the collection of sacred revelations, the task of which he entrusted to Zayd ibn Thâbit. Abu Bakr died in 634 in Medina, taking care to appoint `Omar ibn al-Khattâb as his successor shortly before he died, after consulting the companions who were close to Muhammad.
Main article: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abou_Bakr_As-Siddiq
2- Omar, `Umar ibn al-khattab or , born in 581, reign: (634-644)
Omar reigned ten years and was appointed caliph by Abu Bakr. During his caliphate, `Umar put an end to hostilities with the Persian Sassanids, and conquered Mesopotamia (now Iraq), Egypt, Palestine, Syria, North Africa, Armenia and two-thirds of the Eastern Roman Empire while leaving peoples and territories the freedom to practice their religion, without forcing their conversion to Islam. This success will make Omar one of the great political geniuses in history.
The general social and moral tone of Muslim society at the time was exemplified by an Egyptian who was sent as a spy among the Muslims during their campaign in Egypt. He declared:
“I have seen a people each of whom loves death more than life. They cultivate humility rather than pride. Nothing is developed for material purposes. Their way of life is simple… Their commander is their equal. They make no distinction between superior and inferior, between master and slave. When the time for prayer draws near, no one is left behind…”
`Omar is also known in the Sunni community for his simplicity and austere lifestyle. Rather than flaunting its wealth like the rulers of the time did, it continued to live like the period when Muslims were poor and persecuted. In 639, four years after being named caliph, he decreed that the years of the Islamic era should henceforth begin with the first year of the Hegira, in 622. `Umar died in 644, after being stabbed by Pirouz Nahavandi ( en), a former Persian slave captured during the battle of Al-Qadisiyya, in the great mosque of Medina while he was presiding over the prayer.
On his deathbed, he was asked to choose a successor but refused to appoint one. However, he assembled a committee of six people who had to choose among them the third caliph within the three days that followed, composed in part of the members whom Muhammad had designated as the ten promised in paradise (Al-Ashara Mubashara). It was `Uthman ibn Affan who was chosen.
Main article: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_ibn_al-Khatt%C3%A2b
Victor Hugo’s poem on Omar: Extract from the poem Cèdre dedicated to Seydina Omar, second caliph of Islam, companion of the prophet.
Omer, the powerful priest, similar to prophets,
Saw, close to the Red Sea, in the shade
Of a santon, an old cedar tree with large dark foliage
Growing in a rock that bordered the path;
Scheik Omer stretched out his hand on the horizon
Towards the north inhabited by the rapacious eagles,
And, pointing to the old cedar, beyond the spaces,
The Aegean Sea, and John asleep in Pathmos,
He nudged the tree with his finger and pronounced these words:
“Go, cedar! go cover this man with your shadow. The white specter
of salt that gazes at Sodom
Is no more motionless at the edge of the bitter lake
Than was the cedar to which Omer spoke;
More restive than the onager to his master’s voice,
The tree did not wave a branch. The priest said:
“Go! and struck the tree with his staff.
The cedar, rooted under the wall of the santon,
Did not even shiver and remained peaceful.
The sheik then turned his eyes towards the invisible,
took three steps, then, opening his right and raising it:
“Go! he cried, go, cedar, in the name of the living God! “
Why didn’t you say that name earlier?” said the tree.
And, shivering, breaking the hard marble rock,
Raising its arms like a vessel its tackle,
Splitting the old ancestor earth of the forests,
The great cedar, tearing from the deep crevices
Its trunk and its root and its perennial claws
, flew like a dark and formidable bird.
He passed Mount Gour posed like a bushel
On the red gleam of the blacksmiths of Erebus;
Left behind him Gophna, Jericho, Thebes,
Egypt of numberless gods, formless pantheon,
The Nile, river of Eden, which Adam called Gehon,
The field of Galgala full of knives of stone,
Ur, whence came Abraham, Bethsad, where Peter was born,
And, leaving the desert whence the plagues issue,
Crossed Canaan from Arphac to Borceos;
There, rediscovering the sea, vast, dark, sublime,
He plunged into the enormous cloud of the abyss,
And, crossing the waves, dark enemy abyss,
Came to descend at Pathmos near sleeping John.
John awoke and saw the tree, and the prophet
thought, surprised to have shadow on his head;
3- Ottoman or `Uthmân ibn `Affân, reign: (644-656)
`Uthman, reigned for twelve years as caliph. During his reign, all of Persia, most of North Africa, the Caucasus, Cyprus were conquered and incorporated into the Islamic Empire. His reign was characterized by more centralized control of provincial revenues, aided by governors drawn mostly from his own family, the Umayyad clan, and appointed several of his relatives as governors of new domains. Some of them were accused of corruption and mismanagement.
One of the oldest copies of the Koran dating from the reign of Othman in the 7th century.
`Uthman is famous in the history of Islam for his involvement in compiling the text of the Quran as it exists today and which still follows it word for word and letter for letter. At the time, some peoples in areas of Syria and Iraq argued over the different pronunciations of certain words in the Quran, while new Muslims in provinces outside of Arabia could not pronounce Arabic well.
Perceiving the risks of division, `Uthman then decided to formalize a single type of pronunciation of the Arabic of the Koranic text and to establish a single classification of the suras in relation to each other, starting by asking Hafsa bint Omar, widow since the death of Muhammad, to send him his copy of the manuscript of the Koran. He then entrusted Zayd ibn Thabit and others to prepare several copies and send them to every city and other important places in the Muslim territory and had the alternate versions destroyed. Some of these examples still exist today, notably in the British Museum in London, Cairo (Egypt) and Sanaa (Yemen).
He died in Medina on June 17, 656 in his own house, after having received nine stab wounds assigned to him by a group of insurgents from Kufa, Basra and Egypt who came to challenge his way of managing the finances of the Muslim Empire.
Main article: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Othm%C3%A2n_ibn_Aff%C3%A2n
4-`Ali or `Ali ibn Abi Taleb, born in 600, reign: (656-661)
(Ali according to Shiite sources)
After Uthman’s assassination, Medina was in the midst of a political crisis for a number of days. Many of Ali’s close companions advised him to fulfill the role of caliph, which he initially refused.
After his appointment as caliph, `Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were close to Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides like Malik al-Ashtar. He then moved his capital to Koufa, a Muslim garrison town which today belongs to Iraq. Damascus, capital of the province of Syria, was governed by Mu`âwiya, himself a relative of Othman.
His caliphate coincided with a civil war that broke out between Muslims from 656-661. It began with the assassination of the third caliph `Uthman, spread during Ali’s caliphate and only ended with the rise to power of Mu`awiya. This civil war is often called the “first Fitna” and ended the unity of the Ummah, the Islamic nation. This civil war created permanent divisions within the Muslim community and Muslims were divided on the legitimacy of the person who occupied the caliphate.
Ali is also known for his many sermons and speeches, many of which were compiled into a book titled Nahj al-Balaghah (The Peak of Eloquence).
According to Muslim tradition, three Muslims who were later called Kharijites attempted to assassinate `Ali, Mu’awiya and `Amr whom they considered to be the main authors of the Fitna. However, only the assassination of Ali succeeds. `Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661.
Main article: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abi_Talib
Rightly Guided Caliphs
Hasan ibn Ali was appointed caliph in 661 after the death of his father, `Ali ibn abi talib. He is also considered a righteous ruler by all Sunni Muslims but at the time only half of the Islamic empire recognized his sovereignty and his power was challenged and eventually removed by the governor of Syria, Muawiya I. (Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan).
There are also differing views of other Caliphs recognized as Rightly Guided. `
Omar ibn Abdil `Aziz (`Umar II) (682-720), the eighth Caliph who belonged to the Umayyad dynasty, is sometimes considered to be among the Rightly Guided Caliphs, notably by Taftazani.
In Ibadism, one of the currents belonging to the Khawarij, only Abu Bakr and `Omar ibn al-Khattab are considered rightly guided caliphs.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1494-1566) and Abdul Hamid I (1725-1789) of the Ottoman period are also sometimes considered to be among the Rightly Guided Caliphs.
Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani counts among the Rightly Guided Caliphs all the `Abbasids. He calls them the Banu `Abbas in his enumeration.
1- Military expansion
During the Rashidun period, the Muslim Caliphate became the most powerful state in the Middle East. It was during the reign of the second Caliph, `Umar ibn al-Khattab, that the Persian Sassanid Empire and the Byzantine Empire were defeated.
Detailed article: http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_de_l’islam
2 – Socio-economic policy
During his reign, `Umar founded the Bayt al-Mal (Financial institution that can be likened to the Treasury responsible for the administration of taxes in Islamic States (in) such as Zakat levied on Muslims or well the Jizya for non-Muslims living in Islamic lands). `Umar then expanded it and strengthened the government set up to administer the finances of the state.
In most cases, following the conquest of a land, the caliphs undertook to build and maintain roads and bridges in exchange for the political loyalty of the conquered nation.
3 – Muslim point of view
Intra-Muslim debates about the first four caliphs are particularly common these days: for Sunni Muslims, the rashiduns are models of authority and justice, while for Shiites, the first three caliphs are usurpers. It is prudent to note here that the Muslim tradition which is accepted by both Sunni and Shia Muslims exposes the disagreements and tensions between the first four caliphs, the most notable being the disputes between `Ali and the other caliphs. The contexts of these disagreements often relate to the point of view of the religious and the interpretation of Quranic verses.
| 632 | On the death of Muhammad, Abu Bakr is designated caliph |
|---|---|
| 642 | End of the conquest of Persia and Byzantine Syria |
| 646 | End of the conquest of Byzantine Egypt |
| 647 | First expedition against the Exarchate of Carthage |
| 656 – 661 | first fitna |
| 661 | Assassination of Caliph Ali and establishment of the Umayyad dynasty |
– Omyyad Caliphate –
In 657, Caliph `Alî had to face the governor of Damascus Mu`âwiya during the battle of Siffin. This is the son of one of Muhammad’s Quraychite uncles. His father, Abu Sufyan ibn Harb, had been one of the last to convert to Islam. `Ali accepts the idea of arbitration, but it turns against him in 658.
In 660, Mu`âwîya was proclaimed caliph in Jerusalem
In 661, Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite. Mu’awiya becomes the first Umayyad caliph. The seat of the caliphate moves from Medina to Damascus as the capital of the largest Muslim state in history, stretching from the Indus to the Iberian Peninsula.
In 668, Mu`âwîya considered the idea of having Yazid recognized as his successor. He orders the inhabitants of Damascus to take an oath of loyalty to Yazid. Only four people refused to take this oath, including Hussein son of Ali: the caliphate loses its elective character to become hereditary.
On October 10, 680, the battle of Karbala opposed the powerful army of the Umayyad Caliph Yazid I to the 72 men and children who accompanied Imam Husayn, grandson of Muhammad. Husayn is killed in battle
In 684, Caliph Mu`âwiya ben Yazid died leaving only a son too young to succeed him. His uncle Marwân ben al-Hakam became the fifth Umayyad of Damascus, creating the Marwanid dynasty.
In 744, the dynasty entered a period of instability: three caliphs in one year. Marwan II will be the fourteenth and last Umayyad caliph of Damascus.
In 750, Abu al-`Abbas As-Saffah overthrew Marwan II. The survivors of the massacre took refuge in Spain where they founded the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba.
| 661 | Foundation of the Umayyad Caliphate by Muʿāwiyah I |
|---|---|
| 680 – 692 | Second Fitnah |
| July 19 , 711 | Battle of the Guadalete |
| August 15 , 717 – August 15 , 718 | Second Siege of Constantinople |
| October 25 , 732 | Battle of Poitiers |
| January 25 , 750 | Battle of the Great Zab |
| 750 | Fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, replaced by the Abbasid Caliphate |
Overthrown by the Abbasids, one of their survivors fled to Al-ʾAndalus and founded a new state in Cordoba.
– Islamic Spain (711-1492)
- In 750 , the Umayyads of Damascus were dethroned by the Abbasids. Almost all the members of the family are massacred. Prince `Abd ar-Rahman manages to escape and reaches Spain.
- In 756 , `Abd ar-Rahman became the first Umayyad emir of Cordoba under the name of ` Abd ar – Rahman I.
- In 929 , the emir `Abd ar-Rahman III took the title of caliph , creating a third caliphate which thus affirmed its complete independence from the Abbasid caliphate and the Fatimid caliphate.
- From 1016 , the caliphate partly escapes the Umayyads, Hammudites are inserted in the order of succession, the first of them is `Ali ben Hammud an-Nâsir .
Main article: Hammudites .
- In 1031 , Hisham III was overthrown by a plot of Cordovan notables. He manages to escape. He died in exile, deprived of power, in 1036 , in Lérida , under the protection of the Houdides . This is the beginning of the Taifa era .
-Abbasid Caliphate of Iraq (750 – 1258)-
The Abbasids are a dynasty of Arab Sunni caliphs who ruled the Muslim world from 750 to 1258. This dynasty, founded by Abû al-`Abbâs As-Saffah, came to power after a veritable revolution led against the Umayyads. When the Abbasids triumph over the Umayyads, they move power from Syria to Iraq by settling in their new capital, Baghdad (762).
The Abbasids take their name from Al-Abbas, uncle of Muhammad, from whom they are descendants, while the Umayyads had a more distant family link with the prophet of Islam. They want a more deeply Muslim state, where Iranian converts to Islam will have an equal share with Arabs. In the 8th century, after a bloody revolution, the Abbasids supplanted the Umayyads, the first Muslim dynasty. During this revolution against the Umayyads, their leader Abû Muslim gathered around him, in addition to the Arabs hostile to the reigning dynasty, Iranian natives, small people, runaway slaves. He triumphed in 750 at the Battle of Grand Zab, after more than three years of war.
In 750, the descendant of Al-`Abbas, uncle of Muhammad, Abû al-`Abbas As-Saffah overthrew the Umayyad Marwan II. The survivor of the massacre, ‘Abd al-Rahman, took refuge in Spain where he founded the Umayyad dynasty of Cordoba. The capital of Islam moves from Damascus in Syria to Kufa in Iraq.
In 754, Al-Mansur, successor of As-Saffah, settled in Baghdad. In 836, Al-Mu’tasim changed capital because of incidents between the population of Baghdad and the Turkish and Armenian soldiers present in the city. He settled in Samarra a new garrison town.
In 870, Al-Mu`tamid returned to Baghdad. In 946, the Shiite Muslim Bouyids of Persian origin imposed their tutelage on the Caliph Al-Muti, who retained only theoretical religious power. This Buyid tutelage continues with his successors.
– Fatimid Caliphate the only one that claims Shiism (910 – 1171)
In 881, ‘Ubayd Allah al-Mahdî became the new imam of the Ismailis. For fear of the anti-Shiite repression of the Abbasids, he fled from Syria and took refuge in Sijilmassa in southern Morocco. With an army organized by Abu Abd Allah, he conquered all of Ifriqiya, ending 112 years of Aghlabid rule.
On January 15, 910, ‘Ubayd Allah al-Mahdî took the title of caliph and “commander of the believers” despite the existence of the Abbasid caliph. It was then the first time that two caliphs reigned at the same time.
The Fatimids formed a Shia caliphal dynasty that ruled, from Ifrikiya (between 909 and 969) then from Egypt (between 969 and 1171), over an empire that included a large part of North Africa, Sicily and part of the Middle East. Coming from the Shiite religious branch of the Ismailis – for which the caliph must be chosen from among the descendants of Ali, cousin and son-in-law of the prophet Mohammed, the Fatimids consider the Sunni Abbasids as usurpers of this title.
In 969, Al-Muizz li-Din Allah conquered Egypt. He took Al-Fustat on July 7. Near this ancient capital, he founded a new capital which he named al-Qâhira (Cairo), which means “the Victorious”. They continued to extend their conquests to Syria and managed to establish themselves in Malta, Sicily and temporarily set foot in southern Italy.
In 1009, Al-Hâkim ordered the destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem. This will be the pretext for the beginning of the crusades
In 1171, Al-Adid was the 14th and last Fatimid caliph. Saladin annexes the territory of the Fatimids and reigns supreme over Egypt at the head of the Ayyubid dynasty. he pledges allegiance to the Abbasid Caliph Al-Mustadhi. There is only one caliph left: that of Baghdad.
Salahdine Ayoubi – Saladin
In 1171, Saladin abolished the Shia Fatimid Caliphate following the death of the young Caliph Al-Adid. He swears allegiance to Al-Mustadhî. Henceforth Egypt, Syria and Iraq are again under the authority of the Abbasid Caliph and return to Sunnism.
In 1194, under the reign of An-Nasir, the Khorezmians overthrew the Seljuks in Persia. The Khorezmians also become the new protectors of the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad. The caliphs then take the title of Sultan.
In 1243, the beginning of the seventh crusade: the Templars attacked Egypt. From 1248 to 1254, Louis IX of France carried out an unsuccessful crusade in Egypt and Syria.
In 1258, the Mongol armies led by Hulagu reached Baghdad. The city was devastated and the thirty-seventh Abbasid Caliph Al-Musta’sim and all the members of his family who had been taken prisoner were executed on February 20, 1258.
-Ottoman Caliphate (1517 – 1924)
The Ottoman Empire (Osmanlı İmparatorluğu in modern Turkish) is an empire that lasted from 1299 to 1923 (i.e. 624 years). It gave way, among others, to the Republic of Turkey. Founded by an Oghuz Turkic clan in Western Anatolia, the Ottoman Empire extended at the height of its power over three continents: all of Anatolia, the Armenian high plateau, the Balkans, the Black Sea region, Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, the Arabian Peninsula and North Africa (with the exception of Morocco, Kabylia and the present-day Algerian Sahara).
In 1281, Osman I became the first Ottoman Sultan.
In 1517, Selim I went on a campaign to Egypt. The battle against the Mamluks takes place in Marj Dabiq near Aleppo (Syria). The Mamluk Sultan Qânsûh al-Ghûri is killed and the Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakkil III is taken prisoner. Selim entered Aleppo on August 28, 1517.
The Ottoman Caliphate is the only caliphate that is not Arab.
On August 29, 1517, prayers were said in the name of Selim I, declaring him caliph. Selim sends to Istanbul the sacred objects the sword, the robe, the standard and the teeth of the prophet and transforms Istanbul into the center of the caliphate. This proclamation clearly violates Arabic tradition and several hadiths which state that the caliph must always be a member of the Meccan tribe of Quraysh:
“Abd Allah ben `Umar, reports: The Messenger of God said: “The caliphate will remain among the Quraysh even if there are only two people left on earth”2. »
On October 29, 1923, the Turkish Republic was proclaimed and Mustafa Kemal Atatürk was elected president of the republic. Abdülmecit II is stripped of his functions as sultan but retains his title of caliph. In 1924, Abdülmecit II tried in vain to regain his power as sultan. He is stripped of his title of caliph by Mustafa Kemal. He exiles himself in France. He died in August 1944 in Paris. He is buried in Medina.
The more Islam became internationalized, the more the claim to power became regionalized.
The temporal power of the caliphs continued to decline, until the destruction of Baghdad by the Mongols in 1258, bringing with it the domination of the Arabic language and culture. “At the end of the 15th century, at least two thirds of the populations of Islam lived under kings who spoke Persian and did not know Arabic” (Gabriel Martinez-Gros, L’Histoire, January 2003). All the east of the Moslem area, from Anatolia conquered by the Ottoman Turks, is indifferent to the caliphate, to the Arabs and to the descent of the prophet. The west of this area, which has become “the Arab world”, remains attached to the Arab origins of Islam and to the privileges of the descendants of the Prophet (this is the case of the Cherifian monarchy of Morocco). The sultan, denomination attributed to the rulers of Muslim states, also acted as a caliphate. This last title is considered to be the descendant of the Prophet Muhammad and it is attributed to the leader of the Muslim community. Mainly, its unifying role of the spirit and the letter of Islam within the Islamic nation while being the guarantor of the respect of the law and the diffusion of the Moslem religion, in particular on the level of the Madhabes. The Ottoman Caliphate was the only one not to have Arab origins (2).
The Islamic Caliphate in Modern Times, Political Demise and Institutional Dislocation
The Westernization of Islam in Morocco:
Source: Islam in the politics of the States of the Maghreb [article] Pierre Rondot , Foreign Policy Year 1973 38-1 pp. 41-50 Late Late Mr. Pierre Rondot was my Professor at the Institute of Political Studies of the University of Grenoble, France between 1974 and 1976 – Peace to his Soul
Current Turkey was built on the rubble of the Ottoman Empire which remains one of the most durable empires of modern and Muslim history whose political organization was defined by the model of caliphate and sultanate (1).
“ Mehmed VI ( January 14 , 1861 – May 16 , 1926 ), brother and successor of Mehmed V , was the 36th and last Ottoman sultan (1918–1922) as well as the penultimate caliph of the Muslim world, the two powers being gathered at the time of his reign. He acceded to the throne of the Ottoman Empire in July 1918, shortly before the surrender of the Turkish army to the Allied forces occupying Istanbul , the capital of the empire. Instead of resisting, it prefers to play the game of the foreign occupying forces, hoping to wrest lenient peace conditions from them. He thinks that resistance has no chance of success and can only make the situation worse.
West and Arab Middle East: Moral Crusade or National Interest
Napoleon Bonaparte in Egypt 1798-1799 and in front of the Sphinx (Painting by Gérôme, 1868) Arab Nation and Notion of Power in the Middle East “Arab” countries are victims of a history of the conquest of power which is based on the notion of the tribe and the pride of the tribe and not of the nation… Read More →
This position is perceived as a betrayal, and he lost his legitimacy within the public opinion which revolted when he learned of the conditions of the Treaty of Sèvres . The national struggle, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk from Ankara , turned against him.
Following the victory of the Kemalists in September 1922 , the Grand National Assembly of Turkey abolished the monarchy the following November 1, thus the sultanate (political power) was separated from the caliphate . Mehmed VI’s cousin, Abdülmecid II , was elected caliph by the assembly. Faced with this situation and for fear of being judged, Mehmed VI left the country on November 17 , 1922 aboard the British battleship HMS Malaya to take refuge in Malta . This event marks the official end of the Ottoman Empire . The last Ottoman sultan spent the rest of his life in exile, in difficult economic conditions. He takes refuge in Mecca where he is regarded with respect, and eventually dies in San Remo , Italy . He is buried in Damascus , his mortal remains not being accepted in Turkey .”
Following the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, major changes aimed at modernizing the nascent Turkish state were undertaken under the leadership of the military led by Mustapha Kemal who called himself Ataturk. It is the replica in Turkey of the consolidation of the central power which is invading Europe in the face of the progression of communism and fascism, as is the case in Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal. To seal this authoritarian and modernist evolution in Turkey, a provisional executive committee, headed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, was created, one of its first decisions being the promulgation of a new Constitution . in 1924. This constitution is intended to be the last hammering nail to definitively close the burial chest of the Ottoman dynasty. Through several articles, this new Constitution , and the amendments which modified it, set up Turkey as a secular and secular republican State founded on new institutional and ideological bases of which Kemalism serves as the central frame of reference. (3)
The subtlety of Kemalism aims to attenuate the reference of Islam as a traditional culture and this in favor of a modernizing Turkish nationalism with a military-bureaucratic allure (4).
This modernization included jurisprudence and education. Thus, Muslim courts and civil codes were replaced by more modern forms of European inspiration, notably the adoption of the Swiss Civil Code. Similarly, education is freed from any interference from programs of a religious nature, thus neutralizing the importance of Islamic organizations in training the Turkish elites. This measure had also resulted in the closure of religious schools, both Islamic and Christian, in order to impose a secular state. This approach was intended as a lever to train technocrats that could facilitate Turkey to achieve economic and social development in the same way as that achieved by secular European countries (7).
Political Crisis, Islamization and Secularization: The Emergence of Competitive Islamist Turkey
Due to the absence of a leftist movement in Turkey , Islamic organizations fulfill their role among the population. To do this, they are able to mobilize crowds through speeches against the established order, against exploitation, or even by favoring human rights. These shortcomings allow the rise of Islamic movements with a specific political objective, that of occupying the sphere of the central state and guiding Turkey towards a moderate Islamic orientation.
The West, the Arabs and Islam in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – July 25, 2018
Ottoman Islamic Empire, European Colonial Empires and Middle East Wars
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – June 28, 2018
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by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – October 11, 2018
Indonesia and Turkey condemn Macron’s statements on Islam
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – October 31, 2020
The West, the Arabs and Islam in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – July 25, 2018
Ottoman Islamic Empire, European Colonial Empires and Middle East Wars
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – June 28, 2018
The new Turkish state embraced ideologies like capitalism and liberalism only accentuated the difference in living standards, especially between towns and villages. Thus, Islam finds more and more support in the poorest fringes of villages or slums who are looking for solutions and security, both socially and economically.
In 2000-2001, Turkey’s economy was under the tutelage of the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The repercussions of the militarization of power had plunged the country into a deep financial and economic crisis. Depreciation of the Turkish Lira to more than a third of its value combined with soaring deterioration banking is on the verge of bankruptcy, inflation and interest rates soar to almost 60% as GDP declines has more than 6%. A new conditional financing plan for economic restructuring by the IMF is granted to Turkey by an advance of 11 billion dollars.
This phase of depression demonstrated the failure of liberalized and westernized policies since the 1920s. These measures tending towards the strengthening of Turkish nationalism through a westernization of mores, a dissipation of Muslim traditions and a liberal opening of the economy were carried out by an iron hand of the alliance between a militarized technocracy. The succession of these regimes had resulted in the continuation of authoritarianism and technocratic liberalism which plunged Turkey into an economic slump coupled with political repression of the opposition, ethnic minorities and opposing ideologies, including Muslim culture.
Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – September 26, 2022 The Structure of Power in Iran Introduction Iran’s complex political system combines elements of a modern … Continue readingIran Religion Power State
Isfahan Non Arabic Islam – Love Story and Poetry
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The succession of crises and the dependence of politicians on foreign aid and their allegiance to military alliances which undertook direct military incursions and invasions contributed to the gradual erosion of the nationalist bases of the occupiers of power. These wars in neighboring countries were the invasion of Afghanistan by an international force which took place in October 2001 Operation Enduring Freedom and the invasion of Iraq in 2003. The rural Turkish masses left behind in the strategies of development made in the World Bank and IMF found refuge in the modernist Islamic movement as a nationalist political alternative.
These membership conditions thus favored the coming to power in 2002 of the Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi – Party for Justice and Development founded in 2001 by Recep Tayyip Erdogan. This new party presents itself as a conservative democratic party with nationalist allure without any pan-Islamic allegiance. (11). Recep Tayyip Erdogan became Prime Minister in 2003, which raised some fears on the part of opponents of Republican Islamization in Turkey. Recep Erdogan was quick to reassure observers , Europeans in particular, by proclaiming his attachment to secularism and the separation between religion and state and to compare his party to Christian-democratic formations in Europe.
“The Sultan and Modern Islam” and the New Face of Turkish Liberalism:
Western Modernism and Traditional Islam
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – 11, 2018
West and Middle East: Religion Islam and Arab Ideology
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – May 12, 2020
West and Arab Middle East: Moral Crusade or National Interest
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – September 14, 2018
Islam and the Western Prism
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Middle East, Islamism and the West
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – October 31, 2020
Western Modernism and Traditional Islam
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – October 11, 2018
West and Middle East: Religion Islam and Arab Ideology
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – May 12, 2020
A program of reforms was launched by the government of Recep Tayyip Erdogan with the point man the Minister of Finance at the time, Kemel Dervis. Among these measures are the recapitalization of Turkish banks, the control of inflation, the privatization of certain public companies such as Turk TeleKom, the modernization of the civil service and the revival of exports of Turkish products, services and even soap operas. . Free trade agreements were signed with Muslim and Western countries to stimulate foreign trade. These reforms initiated by Dervis will thus allow Prime Minister Erdogan to make institutional stability and economic development of Turkey its main leitmotifs. Since it also met the conditions for potential membership of the European Union and Turkey’s status as a member of NATO.
In fact, political stability and economic growth had been sorely lacking in Turkey for several years. Thus, economic openness since 2003 has resulted in the arrival of several foreign companies in various manufacturing sectors, particularly in automobile construction (Volkswagen, Fiat, Hyundai, Renault, etc.). Foreign capital is also attracted by the Turkish market of a population of 77 million Turkish consumers. The other characteristics are the decline in unemployment and inflation, which remains below 10%. GDP is growing continuously with rates of: 8.9% in 2010, 7% for 2011 and a “modest” 3.5% forecast for 2012 (compared to 2%, 1.6 and 0.6 for EU).
In this wake, per capita income almost doubled, going from $8,789 in 2003 to $15,320 in 2010. Finally, the government ‘s debt level stands at 47% of GDP, a level that would be the envy of almost any European country. (Figures are from OECD, IMF and EUROSTAT.)
Prime Minister from 2003 to 2014, Recep Tayyip Erdogan made history by becoming in the first round and with nearly 52% of the vote the first President of the Republic elected by direct universal suffrage. Recep Tayyip Erdogan a political sleuth; he often refers in his speeches to the Ottoman Empire while holding them under the portraits of Mustafa Kemal (1881-1938), founder of modern and secular Turkey. However, Erdogan refuses to call him Atatürk (father of the Turks) in the hope of finally diminishing his memory. Skilful, he plays piety and conservatism in front of the militants of his Justice and Development Party. This Islamism does not prevent Erdogan from presenting himself as the champion of modernity, of rapprochement with Europe and of business, in the face of seduced and disconcerted adversaries.
Turkish President Erdogan has already expressed the wish to remain at the head of the state for two terms, i.e. at least until 2023, the year of the hundredth anniversary of the Kemalist republic, a symbolic date for the one who often refers in his speech to the Ottoman Empire. His supporters, who particularly point to his economic achievements to explain their support, saw in his announced election the completion of the campaign he has been waging since coming to power to reshape Turkey at the expense of the secular elites who have dominated the country since then. the proclamation of the republic.
Timeline of Turkey’s Recent Islamic Transformation:
April 2017 Holding of a constitutional referendum in Turkey
July 2016 Failed coup attempt in Turkey
June 2015 Holding of legislative elections in Turkey
May 2013 Popular protest movement in Turkey
June 2011 Re-election in Turkey of the Justice and development of Recep Tayyip Erdogan
July 2007 Election in Turkey of the Justice and Development Party of Recep Tayyip Erdogan
August 1999 Earthquake in Turkey
June 1996 Accession of Necmettin Erbakan to the post of Prime Minister of Turkey
November 1983 Holding of legislative elections in Turkey
September 1980 Overthrow of the government of Süleyman Demirel in Turkey
August 1975 Signing in Helsinki of an agreement on security in Europe
July 1974 End of the regime of colonels in Greece
July 1974 Turkish intervention in Cyprus
October 1973 Return of democracy and legislative elections in Turkey
April 1971 State of siege imposed on Turkey by the government of Cevdet Sunay
March 1964 Arrival of United Nations forces in Cyprus
September 1961 Beginning of the work of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
July 1960 Proclamation of independenceof Cyprus
May 1960 Coup led by General Cemal Gürsel in Turkey
Indonesia and Turkey condemn Macron’s statements on Islam
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – October 31, 2020
West and Middle East: Religion Islam and Arab Ideology
by Said El Mansour Cherkaoui – May 12, 2020
This is roughly the preliminary trajectory of the gradual evolution of Islam and its slide towards a politicization which had conditioned and prepared the premature bursting of the Islamic Ouma into an ideological faction and into Madahibes who wanted each specific interest group to to claim and in their own way a unique and authentic legitimacy with regard to the Message brought by the Prophet Muhammad and secondly in the interpretation how the Quran and the habits and practices of Muhammad (The Suna) should be considered or given questioned by the supporters of these factions of interpretation and justification of political power henceforth the primacy of Islamic thinkers.It is in the cradle of such cogs and manipulations that the sequels and contradictions were forged as well as the reasons for divisions between Muslims from the first hours and their successors at all levels of the religious practice of Islam and of its now politicized and personal-looking extensions.
Ultimately, this evolution remained the vault on which all dissensions, including the one we are currently experiencing, find their raison d’être.
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Some bibliographical sources:
Ultimately, this evolution remained the vault on which all dissensions, including the one we are currently experiencing, find their raison d’être.
Some bibliographical sources:
The internal struggles for the seizure of power between the pretenders to the succession like Caliph and Khoulafaa Rashidine, see: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliphate
The History of Modern Islam:
https://histoireislamique.wordpress.com/author/histoireislamique1/page/45/
Some definitions on the evolution of Islam: http://c-est-quoi.com/fr/definition/islamique
Weigh the words attributed to me in the balance of the Shari’ah, what is in accordance with it take it and what differs from it leave it. Sheikh Ahmed Tijani, may ALLAH be pleased with him:
http://www.tidjaniya.com/ahmed-tijani.php
For a list of caliphs: https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liste_des_califes
Khalid Adnane: The Turkish Miracle, University of Sherbrooke, February 14, 2012
http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/BMAnalyse?codeAnalyse=1397
Guillaume Harcc-Boutin, The Evolution of Political Islam in Turkey, University of Sherbrooke, March 25, 2014
http://perspective.usherbrooke.ca/bilan/servlet/BMAnalyse?codeAnalyse=1550
(1 & 5) MAURY, Jean Pierre. Turkey, 2011, [online], http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/constit/tr1924.htm , (page consulted on March 25, 2014).
(2) LARO
USSE. Caliphate, [online], http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/ … (page consulted on March 25, 2014).
(3 & 7) LAROUSE. Kémalisme, [online], http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/k%C3 … , (page consulted on March 25, 2014).
(4 & 6) BOZDEMIR, Melvüt. The Turkish March to Europe, Karthala, 2004, 296 p.
(5) MAURY, Jean-Pierre.
(6) BOZDEMIR, Melvüt.
(7) LAROUSE.
(8 & 9) PEKOZ, Alex. The development of political Islam in Turkey, Harmattan, 2011, 220 p.
(10) HUNTINGTON, Samuel. The clash of civilizations, Odile Jacob, 2007, 402 p.
(11 & 12) GOURISSE, Benjamin. “The AKP or the impossible alternation”, Liberation, June 13, 2013, http://www.liberation.fr/monde/2013/06/13/l-akp-ou … , (page consulted on March 18, 2014).
(13 & 14) AYMERIC, Janier. “Is the AKP seeking to Islamize Turkish society”, Le Monde, February 22, 2012, http://www.lemonde.fr/proche-orient/article/2012/0 … , (page consulted on March 18 2014).
Last modified: 2014-03-31 07:41:21
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Originally posted at EL JADIDA MAZAGAN ⵎⴰⵣⴰⵖⴰⵏ MAZAGÃO DOUKKALA MOROCCO
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